But today, that framework is no longer sufficient on its own. Not because discrimination has disappeared—it has not—but because racial inequality increasingly operates through systems that rarely announce themselves as discriminatory. Inequality is produced by zoning rules that restrict affordable housing, by transportation systems that isolate neighborhoods, by public investments that consistently bypass certain communities, and by market dynamics that displace long-standing residents. These systems are often described as neutral, efficient, or inevitable. Yet their effects are deeply racialized.